A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument. The history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have been used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt, or a drum in a religious ceremony. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment. Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications.
The date and origin of the first device considered a musical instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some scholars refer to as a musical instrument, a simple flute, dates back as far as 67, 000 years. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37, 000 years ago. However, most historians believe that determining a specific time of musical instrument invention is impossible due to the subjectivity of the definition and the relative instability of materials used to make them. Many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials.
Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world. However, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments fromMesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, and Europeans played instruments from North Africa. Development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in many areas and was dominated by the Occident.
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Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, and many systems of classification have been used over the years. Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common academic method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of musical instruments is called organology.home about join Knowledge Organization journal events chapters people publications Encyclopedia KO literature KO institutions ⇗ KOS registry 🔒 members contact us
5.4. Examples of Hornbostel-Sachs used in bibliographic classification: 5.4.1. Bliss Classification; 5.4.2. DDC early editions; 5.4.3. Flexible Classification; 5.4.4. UDC; 5.4.5. DDC Phoenix Schedule and modern editions
This paper discusses the Hornbostel-Sachs Classification of Musical Instruments. This classification system was originally designed for musical instruments and books about instruments, and was first published in German in 1914. Hornbostel-Sachs has dominated organological discourse and practice since its creation, and this article analyses the scheme’s context, background, versions and impact. The position of Hornbostel-Sachs in the history and development of instrument classification is explored. This is followed by a detailed analysis of the mechanics of the scheme, including its decimal notation, the influential broad categories of the scheme, its warrant, and its typographical layout. The version history of the scheme is outlined and the relationships between versions is visualised, including its translations, the introduction of the electrophones category, and the MIMO version designed for a digital environment. The reception of Hornbostel-Sachs is analysed, and its usage, criticism and impact are all considered. As well as dominating organological research and practice for over a century, it is shown that Hornbostel-Sachs also had a significant influence on the bibliographic classification of music.
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The Classification of Musical Instruments by Erich M. von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs (from here onwards, shortened to Hornbostel-Sachs) is arguably the most important → classification system for musical instruments. In fact, the scheme has played a significant role in the development of the domain in which it was created: organology, which is the study of musical instruments. First published in German in 1914, Hornbostel-Sachs has seen modifications and changes throughout its history, but the scheme remains part of contemporary musical instrument discourse and practice. While designed primarily to classify physical collections of musical instruments, Hornbostel-Sachs was redesigned in the 2000s as an ordering system for digital information about instruments. Hornbostel-Sachs’ originality centres upon its method of categorising instruments, its desire to be universal in terms of musical culture, its borrowing of decimal notation from bibliographic classification, and more. Its reach spreads throughout organology, and arguably Hornbostel-Sachs is sometimes seen as being seen as synonymous with instrument classification.
The article starts with an overview of the origins and history of Hornbostel-Sachs, placing the scheme within the context of general developments of musical instrument classification and discussing the original purposes of the scheme. Next, the mechanics of the scheme are explored, including its basic structure, atypical notation, warrant, and typographical layouts, among other areas. An exploration of the versions and translations of Hornbostel-Sachs follows, highlighting the significance of the English translation of the scheme to its dissemination, and discussing new versions of the scheme. This is followed by an account of the reception of Hornbostel-Sachs, which considers its usage and criticism, and culminates in an examination of how Hornbostel-Sachs’ reach stretches beyond organology and instrument collections and becomes a cornerstone of bibliographic classifications of music.
It is important to consider how Hornbostel-Sachs fits into the history of musical instrument classification. In the pre-Medieval eras, key instrument classification ideas came from the Old Testament of the Bible (especially Psalm 150), Ancient Greek ideas (in particular, works by Aristotle and Boetheius), and the Roman-era treatise of Cassidorus (Kartomi 1990). In the Medieval and Renaissance periods, discussion centred on particular treatises, including those by Grocheo, Virdung, Zarlino, Praetorius and Mersenne (Kartomi 1990). Some theories dominated multiple time periods; for instance, Kartomi (1990) claims that all writers on musical instruments in the 16th and 17th centuries still referenced the Greek or Roman models of instrument classification. Ramey (1974) suggests that rather than a continuously evolving discourse about instruments, the development of instrument classifications and theorisation of instruments remained static from the 17th century for two hundred years. DeVale (1990) goes further still: she suggests that aside from adding the brass category, the basics of instrument classification in the Western world were fundamentally the same from Cassidorus’ scheme in the 6th century through the next 1300 years.
Revision Of The Hornbostel Sachs Classification Of Musical ...
It is at this juncture that a seismic change took place. Mahillon’s scheme (and corresponding catalogue) for the Conservatoire royal de musique de Bruxelles was published in 1880 (Mahillon 1880; Jairazbhoy 1990a), and radically altered the fabric of instrument classification in the Western world. Mahillon’s scheme took the revelatory approach of dividing the population of musical instruments into four, not three, categories, as had been the case for hundreds of years. Furthermore, the top-level categorisation in Mahillon’s scheme divided instruments by how the sound was activated, rather than how the instrument was played. For a description of the categorisation of instruments including the categories used in Hornbostel-Sachs, see section 3.1. Hornbostel-Sachs uses and expands Mahillon’s classification from thirty years earlier (Kartomi 1990), therefore perpetuating the radical changes of Mahillon’s scheme. So, Mahillon’s scheme is the direct parent of Hornbostel-Sachs, and both these schemes are reactions to the prevalent trends in instrument categorisation which had developed up until the late nineteenth century [1].
Hornbostel-Sachs was developed in the early twentieth century by Austrian and German music theorists and scholars, Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs (Katz 2001; Brown 2001). The scheme was first published in German in 1914 with the title of the scheme given as Systematik der Musikinstrumente (Hornbostel and Sachs 1914). Note that this article uses the title of the scheme Hornbostel-Sachs classification of musical instruments, which places the authors’ names in hyphenation in the title of the classification scheme, rather than just the translation Classification of musical instruments. As a further justification for using this format of the name, Hornbostel-Sachs classification of musical instruments follows (with one exception) the formulation of the scheme’s title as found in an article about the scheme by Sachs in 1914, which calls it “Hornbostel-Sachs’sche Klassifikation der Musikinstrumente” (Sachs 1914, 1056). As well as the schedules, the 1914 scheme includes a detailed introduction which explains the design of the scheme and outlines what it was trying to achieve, and this introduction is an important source in organology in its own right.
The authors of Hornbostel-Sachs had clear ideas about the users and purposes of their scheme. Hornbostel and Sachs (1961) were designing their scheme for musicologists, ethnologists, and curators of ethnological collections and cultural history. So, Hornbostel-Sachs was designed to be a scheme for theoretical and for practical purposes. We can also say that it is a knowledge organization system primarily designed for organising artefacts as opposed to mentefacts, using terminology used by the Classification Research Group (Gnoli 2018a). Note, organology is not mentioned in the introduction to Hornbostel-Sachs, as this term was not in common use in the early 20th century (see DeVale (1990) and Kartomi (1990) for the history and boundaries of organology as a domain). Another purpose given for the classification scheme (Hornbostel and Sachs 1961) is that it encourages researchers to find new links between instruments; so, Hornbostel-Sachs is fulfilling one criterion of being a scientific classification by enabling new knowledge to be created through classification (using
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It is at this juncture that a seismic change took place. Mahillon’s scheme (and corresponding catalogue) for the Conservatoire royal de musique de Bruxelles was published in 1880 (Mahillon 1880; Jairazbhoy 1990a), and radically altered the fabric of instrument classification in the Western world. Mahillon’s scheme took the revelatory approach of dividing the population of musical instruments into four, not three, categories, as had been the case for hundreds of years. Furthermore, the top-level categorisation in Mahillon’s scheme divided instruments by how the sound was activated, rather than how the instrument was played. For a description of the categorisation of instruments including the categories used in Hornbostel-Sachs, see section 3.1. Hornbostel-Sachs uses and expands Mahillon’s classification from thirty years earlier (Kartomi 1990), therefore perpetuating the radical changes of Mahillon’s scheme. So, Mahillon’s scheme is the direct parent of Hornbostel-Sachs, and both these schemes are reactions to the prevalent trends in instrument categorisation which had developed up until the late nineteenth century [1].
Hornbostel-Sachs was developed in the early twentieth century by Austrian and German music theorists and scholars, Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs (Katz 2001; Brown 2001). The scheme was first published in German in 1914 with the title of the scheme given as Systematik der Musikinstrumente (Hornbostel and Sachs 1914). Note that this article uses the title of the scheme Hornbostel-Sachs classification of musical instruments, which places the authors’ names in hyphenation in the title of the classification scheme, rather than just the translation Classification of musical instruments. As a further justification for using this format of the name, Hornbostel-Sachs classification of musical instruments follows (with one exception) the formulation of the scheme’s title as found in an article about the scheme by Sachs in 1914, which calls it “Hornbostel-Sachs’sche Klassifikation der Musikinstrumente” (Sachs 1914, 1056). As well as the schedules, the 1914 scheme includes a detailed introduction which explains the design of the scheme and outlines what it was trying to achieve, and this introduction is an important source in organology in its own right.
The authors of Hornbostel-Sachs had clear ideas about the users and purposes of their scheme. Hornbostel and Sachs (1961) were designing their scheme for musicologists, ethnologists, and curators of ethnological collections and cultural history. So, Hornbostel-Sachs was designed to be a scheme for theoretical and for practical purposes. We can also say that it is a knowledge organization system primarily designed for organising artefacts as opposed to mentefacts, using terminology used by the Classification Research Group (Gnoli 2018a). Note, organology is not mentioned in the introduction to Hornbostel-Sachs, as this term was not in common use in the early 20th century (see DeVale (1990) and Kartomi (1990) for the history and boundaries of organology as a domain). Another purpose given for the classification scheme (Hornbostel and Sachs 1961) is that it encourages researchers to find new links between instruments; so, Hornbostel-Sachs is fulfilling one criterion of being a scientific classification by enabling new knowledge to be created through classification (using
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